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The Natal Drakensberg Park (approximately 242 813 ha) was designated to RAMSAR on 21/01/1996 is characterised by an abundance of high altitude mountain wetlands. These include high altitude tarns, springs, bogs, marshes and streams, which may be broadly classified as permanent rivers and streams, including waterfalls, permanent and seasonal marshes and ponds, with emergent vegetation waterlogged for at least most of the growing season, peatlands, freshwater springs, seasonally flooded meadows and sedge marshes (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Component protected areas of the Drakensberg Park

The Drakensberg is renowned for the quantity, quality and variety of rock art painted by now extinct Bushman.

Areas are burnt biannually and seasonal variability has been introduced (i.e. autumn, winter and spring) in order to try and maintain the biotic diversity of the area (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Various activities are currently taking place in the area surrounding the Park. These include commercial and subsistence farming, as well as various recreation activities. Many private accommodation facilities like chalets, lodges, hotels and camp sites have been developed to cater for the tourist market (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Consumptive resource utilization

Wildlife resource harvesting by neighbouring communities 1994/1995 was as follows:

The controls on utilization of resources are the responsibility of the officer-in-charge of every station. Control is exercised through entry and movement within the protected area and the use of neighbour cards and/or "thatch" cards. Harvested resources are inspected and/or controlled before they are allowed out of the protected area (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Public camping sites are scattered throughout the Park.  Visitors to the Park are able to participate in many activities which include hiking, backpacking, wilderness trails, horse rides, paragliding and mountain climbing. Attractions include outstanding examples of rock art in caves and overhangs, clear mountain streams, a magnificent landscape, herds of game, wild flowers and indigenous trees, grasslands and interesting bird species.

The outstanding landscape that comprises the Park attracts thousands of visitors annually both from South Africa and from overseas. Visitors greatly appreciate the ability to walk and climb and overnight in remote wilderness areas. Substantial upgrading and maintenance of paths and roads has taken place and is an ongoing challenge for field managers (Ref. 1a and 1b).

The Natal Parks Board provides accommodation in 10 centres. The accommodation at these centres totals 1 757 beds per night or 641 305 bed units per annum. This includes:

• 94 units, providing 450 beds in hutted camps,

• 3 mountain huts providing 150 beds and

• 9 caravan/camping areas accommodating 1 157 people.

In recognition of its exceptional natural value and its wealth of rock art, uKhahlamba/Natal Drakensberg Park was designated a World Heritage Site in 2000.

Nature conservation and outdoor recreation include walking, hiking, climbing, camping, wilderness experiences and horse riding (Ref. 1a and 1b).

During a survey in 1994, 153 wetland plant species from 38 different plant families were encountered in the Natal Drakensberg Park .  However, it is by no means a complete list, with certain taxa such as Orchidaceae being under-represented and ferns and mosses being largely not accounted for (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Dely et al. (Ref. 2) described 11 wetland vegetation types which characterise the wetlands of the Park, namely:

Although the prevailing topography does not generally favour the development of large wetlands, eleven wetland plant communities are represented due to the range of physical conditions under which the wetlands have developed. At least thirty six plant species which are partly or totally dependent on the wetlands are endemic to this area (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Two of the seven floristic regions recognised by Werger (Ref. 6) in his phytosociological study of Africa south of four degrees south, are represented in the Drakensberg Park . These are the Afro-alpine and Afromontane Regions described in detail by Killick (Ref. 4) and White (Ref. 7) respectively. The vegetation of the Drakensberg Park falls into three of the 70 South African Veld Types described by Acocks (Ref. 8), viz.

·         Themeda - Festuca Alpine Veld (no. 58),

·         Highland Sourveld (no. 44a), and

·         a very small area of Southern Tall Grassveld (no. 65).

Most of the area is covered by grasslands, with wooded areas being confined mainly to lower altitudes and moist aspect slopes.

Regular burning of the Drakensberg favours the maintenance of herbaceous vegetation over woody vegetation.

Amongst the reptiles was the Nile minotor leguaan (Varanus niloticus), listed as vulnerable on the Red Data species list (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Birds:  A number of rare and threatened bird species also depend on these habitats, including wattled crane (Grus carunculata), listed as endangered on the Red Data list, the striped flufftail (Sarothrura affinis), listed as rare on the Red Data list, the black stork (Ciconia nigra) and the grass owl (Tyto capensis), both listed as intermediate on the Red Data species list.

Mammals:  

The eland populations have increased over the years from about 100 in 1904 to over 2000 to date. (Ref. 1a and 1b)

A number of animals listed in the South African Red Data Books are partly or totally dependent on the wetlands of the uKhahlamba/Natal Drakensberg Park.  The serval (Felis serval) is one of the threatened Red Data species (Ref. 1a and 1b).

The Drakensberg, which forms part of the eastern escarpment of southern Africa, stretches from the Stormberg Mountains of the southern Cape to the eastern part of the Northern Province and is an extremely rugged area that includes three altitudinal zones (Ref. 4):

• The Montane zone (1280 - 1830 m).

• The Sub-Alpine zone (1830 - 2865 m).

• The Alpine Zone (2865 - 3500 m).

The Drakensberg catchments consist of an inter-connected system of wetlands, ranging from open water bodies such as mountain tarns, a variety of marshes, to an intricate network of stream and river courses. These wetlands are present throughout the altitudinal gradient of the mountains, from the Afro-alpine to the Afromontane Belts. The networks of interconnected wetland systems are distributed in a complex mosaic, occupying a variety of positions in the landscape, ranging from small hanging wetlands, high on valley sides, down to the extensive watercourses.

The Drakensberg wetlands have therefore been classified (Ref. 2) as:

1.       Depression settings

Depression settings occur on terraces or in valleybottoms, but tend to be more common and conspicuous on ridgetops, even on fairly narrow ridges. Wetlands in such settings are described as endorheic because they are inward draining and do not have an outlet.

Ridgetop depressions with open water are commonly referred to as tarns (Ref. 4). Tarns are fairly widespread in the lower Sub-alpine zone but are very infrequent in the Montane zone and in the entire Northern Drakensberg . There are probably not more than a few hundred tarns in the Drakensberg. The highest concentrations of tarns occur in the southern Drakensberg (e.g. 'The Lake District' in Cobham). This range in water regimes results in depressions supporting a range of vegetation types.  Permanently wet areas support open water with submerged or floating aquatic plants or support emergent plants (notably, Eleocharis dregeana).  In the less wet depressions and on the margins of the wetter depressions, temporarily wet grassland is supported.

2.       Midslope and valleyhead slope settings

Valleyhead wetlands can be flat and relatively large (>1 ha). However, most wetlands in valleyhead positions are sloped. Sloped valleyhead wetlands are functionally similar to sloped midslope wetlands in that both are: 

• generally characterised by the discharge and/or through flow of groundwater,

• usually situated high in the catchment,

• do not have stream channels within or entering them,

• usually small (<1 ha). They also support similar vegetation types, mostly sedge/grass meadow. However, they differ in that valleyhead wetlands are drained by a stream channel (i.e. they occur at the 'eye' of the stream) but slope settings are not.

3.       Valleybottom and channel settings

Stream channels are common in the Drakensberg but their character is such that riparian wetlands are seldom very extensive. Most stream channels have steep gradients, with the result that the velocity of stream currents is high and not conducive to the establishment of emergent and aquatic plants (Ref. 4).  In addition, streambeds are often characterized by boulders, sometimes in several tiers, further limiting the establishment of wetland vegetation.

In young valleys, the valleybottom is very narrow, and steep well drained slopes often extend all the way to the channel banks, confining any riparian wetland areas that occur to the immediate stream banks. The stream banks themselves are usually well drained, further limiting the extent of riparian wetlands. Thus, wetlands associated with young valleys are discontinuous and usually narrow.

Valleys with third order streams and greater tend to have wider valleybottoms than those associated with low order streams. Although these valleys are more gently sloped, they generally do not support extensive wetland areas in the Drakensberg because the channel bed usually lies well below the general valleybottom surface and the water table is seldom shallow enough for wetland conditions to develop, other than in less elevated areas (e.g. 'backmarsh' areas).

'Backmarsh' areas supporting wetlands usually occur where tributary streams which are not deeply incised into the valleybottom flat areas flow across the valleybottom of the main stream. It is presumed, therefore, that such tributary streams have an important role in maintaining the wetness of the 'backmarsh' wetlands. Both herbaceous vegetation types, such as Merxmuellera meadow, and woody vegetation types, such as Leucosidea sericea scrub, are supported in valleybottom areas. The degree of wetness of valleybottom flat areas varies, resulting in these areas supporting a range of wetland vegetation types. The most commonly occurring wetland type in the wettest of these areas is Carex acutiformis marsh, while Merxmuellera meadow and Miscanthus capensis meadow occur in less wet situations.

Almost all of the large wetlands of the KwaZulu-Natal midlands (e.g. Ntabamhlope vlei and Mgeni vlei) occur in unchannelled valleybottoms, which are areas that have very gentle slopes and where channelled flow becomes diffuse. This landform is almost completely absent from the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg, presumably due to the steep gradients of most Drakensberg streams. There are some Drakensberg wetlands (e.g. those occurring on the Highmoor plateau) which have very gentle gradients, but these tend to have stream channels which, although shallow, reduce the extent of diffuse flow.

4.       Footslope settings

Most wetlands occurring on footslopes with deep soil are associated with tributary streams which flow down the side of the main valley and over the footslope, becoming more diffuse due to the considerably reduced gradient. As is the case with many valleybottom flat/'backmarsh' wetlands, the tributary streams are presumed to be important in maintaining these wetlands. The vegetation types supported by terraces with shallow soils are distinctly different from those on terraces with deep soils and tend to be much shorter and have many more succulent plants, especially of the genus Crassula.

5.       Cliff/scree sites

Very small waterlogged (temporarily to permanently) sites (<10 m² in size and often only a few centimetres in diameter) occur on cliffs, scree slopes, below overhangs and adjacent to waterfalls. Because of their scale, these areas are generally not considered in wetland inventories. Nevertheless, they support a wide range of species, some of which are specially adapted to such sites.

The KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg is crescent-shaped, and stretches from latitude 20º 05' to 9º 55' south, and longitude 29º 45' to 29º 44' east footslope settings (Ref. 1a and 1b).

Hill profiles are often stepped, especially in the southern Drakensberg. This effect is caused by the lithology of the parent rock; erosion of which gives rise to steep slopes interrupted at intervals by gently sloped terraces/footslopes running along the hill contour (Ref. 5).  Depending on the situation, these footslopes may either have very shallow soils (<10 cm deep), with patches of the underlying sheetrock exposed or, alternatively, they may have deep soils (usually >80 cm). Wetlands occurring on footslopes with shallow soils appear to occur predominantly in situations where groundwater moving downslope is forced to the surface, or very close to the surface, by the impervious sheetrock.

The Drakensberg consists of two parallel escarpments stepping up from the lowlands to the Lesotho plateau. This comprises four rock formations:

• The Stormberg Series, underlain in turn by

• The Upper Beaufort Beds of the Beaufort Series.

• The lower escarpment, or "Little Berg" as it is commonly known, is capped by

• The prominent Clarens Sandstone cliffs. Underlying this formation are three formations of sedimentary rocks. Above the Clarens Sandstone lie stratified basaltic lavas, with a vertical thickness of nearly 1 400 m. The cliffs of the main escarpment are dark coloured, bare and form spectacular sheer cliff faces locally, some of which are almost 500 m in height.

The rivers of the Drakensberg, although numerous, drain into only three catchments namely, the Tugela, the Mkomazi and the Mzimkulu. The Tugela is the biggest river in KwaZulu-Natal and the second biggest in South Africa , while the other two are the second and third biggest rivers in KwaZulu-Natal . All the rivers in the Drakensberg Park fall into the same category in any given classification namely, the Drakensberg Mountain Region (Ref. 9).

The channel substrate at high altitudes (generally > 1850 m) consists of basalt bedrock and boulders, while at lower altitudes, sandstone bedrock and boulders dominate. In the lowest parts of the park, sand and silt substrates become evident as occurs in the Stillerus section of the Mooi River .  Although mineral soils are more common, some of the wetland areas, particularly those on south-facing slopes and at higher altitudes have organic soils (which tend to have a minerotrophic water supply).

The three largest rivers in KwaZulu-Natal , the Tugela, Mkhomazi and Mzimkulu, originate in the Drakensberg.  The mountains occupy less than 7 % of the surface area of KwaZulu-Natal , but yield approximately 25 % of the total stream flow. The Drakensberg exerts good control over high rainfall inputs. Drainage density (the length of stream channel per unit area) is very high and slopes are very steep resulting in high runoff/rainfall ratios (0,45 to 0,5). The Drakensberg support rural, agricultural, urban and industrial consumers in both KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng .  The value of water produced is estimated at over Rl50 million per annum.  The high altitude wetlands found in the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park (formerly the Natal Drakensberg Park ) play a vital role in maintaining this precious resource and have particular significance for the maintenance of regular streamflow patterns and high water quality levels.

Under normal rainfall conditions, all the main rivers and their tributaries are perennial where they leave the Park and most may be classified as the Lower Stony Run Zone at that point. The larger streams are perennial right from their Source Zones and Mountain Torrent Zones while the smaller ones are seasonal at high altitudes. The winter (dry) season flows are largely dependent on either the extent of development of a snow pack or on the localised presence of wetlands. Stream flows can fluctuate widely in the short time periods after storms. Generally these events, which may be much localised, occur in the summer months. The water regimes represented in the wetlands range from permanently to temporarily waterlogged.

The water yield of the Natal Drakensberg Park is of high importance to much of KwaZulu-Natal . The Park occupies approximately 2 460 km² out of a total of about 3038 km² in the whole Drakensberg catchment area. The estimated water runoff for the Natal Drakensberg Park is 7000 m³/ha/year. Thus the MAR of the Natal Drakensberg Park is some 1722 X 10⁶ m³/year.  Although only 7,3 % of the three major rivers' catchment lies in the Park some 25 % of their MAR is derived from this area (Ref. 10).

Precipitation:   Precipitation is in the form of rainfall, mist and snow, with most snowfalls occurring in the winter and spring, between May and October. There are approximately eight snowfalls per year, but the contribution to total precipitation is small.

The mean annual rainfall ranges from about 1 100 mm to over 2 000 mm. 

Mist may account for as much as a quarter of the total precipitation. About 80 % of the annual rainfall occurs from October to March, leading to a summer moisture surplus and a winter moisture deficit. The rainfall is of convection and orographic types. Summer rainstorms, particularly convection storms, are commonly of high intensity.

Frost is common, however the local topography exerts a control on its distribution and intensity. Conditions favourable for frost occur in winter with an annual duration of about 180 days from mid April to October at high plateau elevations, and about 120 days duration from May to about September in the foothill areas. Frost occurs at lower altitudes when drainage of cold air from high plateau areas drains into the lower-lying valleys (Ref. 13).

Temperature:  The mean annual temperature of the Drakensberg is about 16 °C, but variations are considerable both seasonally and between day and night. The highest temperatures (up to 35 °C) occur during summer on north-facing slopes at lower altitudes, while the lowest temperatures (down to about -20 °C) occur during winter nights on the summit plateau (Ref. 13). 

Snow usually falls in winter and night temperatures commonly drop to below     10 °C.

Uncontrolled agriculture, overgrazing of communal land and afforestation with exotic tree species are some of the most critical threats posed to the Natal Drakensberg Park Wetlands.  Neighbouring communities often view the Park as unutilized grassland, which should be made available forever increasing numbers of domestic livestock for grazing. 

Another major threat is the land claims and illegal land invasion that is taking place.  The communities have been encouraged to work legally through the Land Claims Court and not to invade conservation areas. In a few places communities dispute the boundary between the Park and communal land. Forums have been set up to resolve these disputes.

A study by Dely (Ref. 2) concluded that:

• The wetlands of the Park have been subjected to very low levels of soil disturbance caused by erosion. Erosion of the wetlands surveyed by Dely (Ref. 2) was found to be extremely low, with erosional degradation (in the form of rill and gully erosion) not being recorded in the wetlands surveyed. This may be partly attributed to the low level of use of the wetlands in the Park.

• The low level of erosion and the absence of any artificially constructed drainage channels suggest that the hydrological regimes of wetlands in the study area have not been significantly disrupted.

• Except for a few wetlands with low levels of alien plant infestation, almost all of the described wetlands were found to be free of alien plants.